Weeks 8 (Ch08)

Action Preparation

Ovande Furtado Jr., PhD.

Associate Professor, California State University, Northridge

2025-10-16

Objectives

1. Video Overview | Discuss why reaction time (RT) can be an index of preparation required to perform a motor skill.
2. Video Overview | Explain how Hick’s law describes the relationship between the number of alternatives in a choice-RT situation and RT.
3. Video Overview | Describe various task and situation characteristics that influence action preparation.
4. Video Overview | Describe various performer characteristics that influence action preparation.
5. Video Overview | Discuss several motor control activities that occur during action preparation.

1 Objective 1: Why Reaction Time Reflects Motor Preparation

Breaking the Ice

Video Overview

Audio Overview

Study these questions before coming to class:
1. Have you ever tried clicking a really small button on your phone when you’re in a hurry? What happens to your accuracy?

Concise Answer: You sacrifice accuracy for speed! Your brain needs time to prepare precise movements, and rushing disrupts the motor planning process.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates the trade-off between speed and accuracy. When hurried, you minimize reaction time at the expense of motor preparation quality. The nervous system shortcuts the preparation phase (visual analysis, programming finger position, hand-eye coordination), leading to faster initiation but reduced spatial accuracy. This is why reaction time is an index of preparation; longer RT allows for more thorough motor planning and better execution.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: In basketball free throws, coaches teach players to take their time during the preparation phase before shooting. Rushing leads to missed shots because the motor system needs adequate time to program precise hand positioning and force control. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors emphasize the importance of mental preparation before complex sequences. Students who rush into difficult moves without proper preparation often lose balance or miss steps because they didn’t allow time for motor programming. - Physical Therapists: When working with patients on fine motor tasks like buttoning shirts, PTs allow adequate preparation time. Patients who rush often fumble because they haven’t given their nervous systems time to program the precise finger movements required.

2. When you’re about to catch a ball that’s thrown to you, do you notice a brief moment where you’re “getting ready” before you actually start moving your hands?

Concise Answer: Absolutely! That’s action preparation in real-time - your brain is processing visual information, predicting trajectory, and programming your catching movement before initiating hand motion.

Comprehensive Answer: This illustrates action preparation as the bridge between stimulus perception and movement. During that “getting ready” moment, your nervous system is performing complex calculations: visual trajectory analysis, motor program selection, and timing the intercept. This preparation period corresponds to reaction time. The more complex the catch, the longer the preparation. Elite athletes minimize this time through practice, but the preparation phase never disappears—it just becomes more efficient.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Baseball coaches teach outfielders to use the “get ready” moment when the ball is hit to read its trajectory and prepare their catching position. This preparation time determines whether they’ll make a successful catch or miss entirely. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): PE teachers emphasize the importance of tracking and preparation when teaching catching skills. Students learn to use visual cues to prepare their hand positioning and timing before the ball arrives. - Physical Therapists: When working on balance and catching activities, PTs help patients recognize and utilize preparation time. Patients learn to visually track objects and prepare their postural adjustments before attempting to catch, reducing fall risk.

3. Have you ever been startled by a sudden loud noise and noticed how quickly you can react versus when you’re trying to carefully thread a needle?

Concise Answer: Startle responses are automatic reflexes with minimal preparation, while precise tasks like threading a needle require extensive motor planning - showing how complexity affects preparation time!

Comprehensive Answer: This comparison shows how movement complexity influences action preparation. A startle response is a pre-wired reflex that bypasses conscious preparation, allowing for a reaction in 50-100 milliseconds. In contrast, threading a needle requires extensive preparation: visual analysis, fine motor programming, and sensory integration, which can take over 1000 milliseconds. This demonstrates that reaction time is an index of preparation complexity; more sophisticated movements require more neural computation time before initiation.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Track coaches understand that simple sprint starts require different preparation than complex gymnastic routines. A 100m start is a practiced, ballistic movement with minimal preparation time, while a floor routine requires extensive mental rehearsal and motor programming before execution. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach that simple movements like clapping require little preparation, while complex pirouettes need extensive preparation including balance, timing, and spatial orientation. Students learn to give themselves adequate preparation time for complex movements. - Physical Therapists: PTs recognize that simple movements like waving require minimal preparation time, while complex tasks like writing or using utensils need extensive motor planning. They structure therapy to progress from simple to complex movements as patients’ preparation abilities improve.

4. Why do you think race car drivers and sprinters spend so much time practicing their starts, even though the actual starting movement is very brief?

Concise Answer: They’re training their action preparation! A perfect start requires optimized reaction time through practiced motor preparation routines, not just fast muscles.

Comprehensive Answer: This reveals the importance of action preparation training in elite performance. Race starts depend on optimizing the preparation phase. Athletes practice starts to develop optimal alertness, attention focus (sensory set vs. motor set), and automatic motor programs that execute without conscious control. The reaction time from signal to movement often determines race outcomes. This shows that high-level performance requires training the “invisible” preparation phase as intensively as the visible execution.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Swimming coaches spend extensive time on start technique because races are often won or lost in the first few seconds. They train swimmers to focus attention on the starting signal (sensory set) rather than thinking about their stroke technique (motor set), which research shows reduces reaction time by 20 milliseconds. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach students to practice their preparation routines before performances. This includes mental rehearsal of opening sequences and establishing optimal alertness levels. Students learn that the “ready” position is as important as the actual movement. - Physical Therapists: PTs work with patients on developing consistent preparation routines for daily activities like standing from chairs or walking. Patients learn to establish proper alertness and attention focus before initiating movements, which reduces fall risk and improves success rates.

5. When you’re typing and suddenly realize you’re about to make a mistake, do you notice that brief pause before you correct yourself?

Concise Answer: That pause is action preparation for error correction! Your brain needs time to recognize the error, inhibit the wrong movement, and prepare the correct response.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates action preparation in real-time error correction. When you detect a typing error, your nervous system must recognize the error, inhibit the incorrect movement, and plan the correct one. The brief pause is the reaction time required for this complex preparation, often 200-500 milliseconds. Expert typists minimize this time through practice. This illustrates how reaction time reflects preparation complexity, as error correction requires more neural processing than normal execution.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Basketball coaches teach players to recognize when they’re about to make a bad pass and how to quickly adjust. That brief hesitation before changing the pass direction represents the motor system preparing the correction. Elite players minimize this preparation time through practice. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors help students learn to recover from mistakes during routines. When a student realizes they’re off-beat, that pause before getting back on rhythm is the nervous system preparing the correction. Training reduces this recovery time. - Physical Therapists: PTs work with patients on error detection and correction during gait training. When patients sense they’re losing balance, they learn to use that brief preparation moment to plan corrective movements rather than panicking, which often leads to better outcomes and fewer falls.

1.1 Objective 1: Why Reaction Time Reflects Motor Preparation

• Objective: Discuss why reaction time (RT) can serve as an index of the preparation required to perform a motor skill.
• Focus Areas:
  • The concept of action preparation
  • How RT represents the time needed for the brain to prepare a movement
  • How this concept appears in everyday life and performance contexts

Let’s begin by framing today’s discussion. The central idea here is that before any voluntary action, the motor control system must first prepare itself to execute that action. This period of getting ready happens between the intention to move and the initiation of movement.

We call this action preparation, and it’s a fundamental part of all movement control. Whether you are sprinting, picking up a cup, or reacting to a car pulling out in traffic, there’s always a short, measurable delay before movement begins. That delay represents the time your brain and nervous system need to identify the situation, select the right muscles, and program the movement sequence.

In this objective, we’ll use reaction time, or RT, as our main tool to study this preparation phase. RT is not just a stopwatch measure — it’s a scientific window into how much work your nervous system must do before your body starts moving. By analyzing RT, we can understand the amount and type of preparation needed to perform a motor skill efficiently.

So, as we move through this lesson, keep in mind: RT reflects what happens inside the motor system before you see the first sign of movement.

1.2 Action Preparation: Getting Ready for Movement

• Performing voluntary movement requires preparation of the motor control system.
• Even simple daily actions show a delay between deciding to act and starting the movement.
• This delay is the time required for the nervous system to organize and activate the correct motor plan.

One of the clearest ways to see preparation in action is through everyday examples.

Think about reaching for a glass of water. The moment you decide to grab the glass, movement doesn’t happen instantly. There’s a brief pause as your brain processes the decision, determines where the glass is, and programs the arm muscles to move with the right direction and force.

Or imagine you’re driving, and another car suddenly cuts in front of you. There’s a measurable delay between when you see the car and when your foot starts moving from the accelerator to the brake. That delay isn’t just slow reflexes — it’s your motor control system preparing the proper action in response to the situation.

This same principle applies in sports. The rules of many competitions — like track or swimming — include a “ready” signal before the start. That signal isn’t only for fairness; it gives competitors a brief but vital window to prepare their motor system. They adjust posture, focus attention, and prime their muscles for the exact movement sequence needed.

So, what this tells us is that action preparation is an essential stage in movement control. It’s the difference between acting impulsively and acting efficiently and accurately.

1.3 Reaction Time: A Window into Motor Preparation

• Reaction Time (RT) is the interval between the presentation of a signal and the start of movement.
• RT serves as an index of the amount of preparation required before movement begins.
• Longer RTs indicate greater complexity or more demanding preparation.

Predicted reaction times (RTs), according to Hick’s law

1.4 Donders’ Classic Reaction Time Experiments

• F. C. Donders (1868) first used RT to study the stages of mental preparation.
• Compared three tasks:
  • Simple RT: one signal, one response.
  • Choice RT: multiple signals and corresponding responses.
  • Discrimination RT: respond to a specific signal only.
• Developed the subtraction method to estimate time for each mental stage.

Donders’ Use of Reaction Time to Study Action Preparation

Click image to enlarge

Donders’ 19th-century work was groundbreaking because it demonstrated that reaction time isn’t a single, uniform event — it’s composed of multiple stages of mental and neural processing.

He created three types of reaction-time tasks. In the simple RT task, participants reacted as quickly as possible to one light by pressing a key. This setup measured the baseline time needed to perceive a stimulus and initiate one response.

In the choice RT task, participants saw two lights and pressed a key with the right or left hand depending on which light appeared. This added a decision-making stage — selecting which response was appropriate.

In the discrimination RT task, participants had to respond only to a particular color or type of light, ignoring others. That required stimulus identification, since they had to decide whether the stimulus met the required condition before responding.

By subtracting the RTs of these tasks from one another, Donders could estimate how long each mental process — like identifying the stimulus or choosing the correct response — took. This method showed that each stage of processing adds measurable time before movement begins.

This was one of the first pieces of evidence that the brain’s preparation time directly affects reaction time, confirming that RT reflects the complexity of underlying cognitive and motor operations.

1.5 Action Preparation Requires Time

• Preparation takes measurable time, even in simple actions.
• RT represents the total duration of processes like stimulus recognition, decision-making, and motor programming.
• More complex actions require more extensive preparation.

flowchart TB A[Signal] --> B{Cognitive Process} B --> C[Movement Begins]

Figure 1: Flowchart demonstrating action preparation processes

The textbook emphasizes that preparation doesn’t happen instantly — it requires time. This is a crucial concept: the motor system must perform a sequence of operations before any movement occurs.

When you see a signal to act, several things happen in order. First, you must recognize the stimulus. Next, you decide how to respond. Finally, you program the motor commands that will activate the muscles.

Each of these steps adds milliseconds to your reaction time. The more complex the movement or the more uncertain the situation, the longer this preparation stage becomes.

This is why reaction time can tell us so much. For example, studies show that RT increases when there are more response options, when the required movement is complex, or when accuracy demands are higher. Conversely, RT decreases when people are practiced, alert, or familiar with the situation.

So, preparation is not wasted time — it’s essential time that allows the brain to coordinate multiple systems for a smooth, accurate, and timely response.

1.6 Everyday Evidence of Action Preparation

• Everyday activities and sports illustrate preparation vividly.
• The phrase “I wasn’t ready” reflects incomplete preparation.
• The “get ready” phase in competition rules exists to allow proper preparation.

You can observe action preparation in almost every physical activity.

In sports, the “ready” phase is built into the rules for a reason. Sprinters hear “on your marks, get set” before the gun fires. That moment allows their motor system to reach an optimal state of readiness — muscles are pre-tensioned, attention is focused, and the nervous system is fully alert. Without that, their start would be slower or uncoordinated.

In rehabilitation, we hear patients say, “Don’t rush me.” That statement perfectly captures the principle of motor preparation. Their nervous system needs that short interval to organize the required movement — for example, the sequence of muscle activations needed to stand safely.

Even in ordinary life, when we move before we’re “ready,” mistakes happen — we spill the drink, stumble, or misjudge timing. So, being “ready” is not just psychological; it’s neuromuscular readiness — the body and brain tuned to act efficiently.

This shows why understanding preparation is valuable not only for athletes but also for anyone learning or relearning movement skills.

1.7 Practical Application: Using RT and Preparation in Real Settings

Coaches

• Use reaction-time drills to train athletes’ readiness and decision speed.
• Example: Variable start cues in sprinting or unpredictable signals in passing drills.

Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.)

• Emphasize the importance of anticipation and focus before moving.
• Example: Cue students to visualize the movement or rhythm before execution.

Physical Therapists

• Allow sufficient preparation time to enhance movement safety and control.
• Example: Before gait or transfer training, encourage patients to pause, focus, and “get ready” before moving.

The principles of reaction time and preparation have very practical implications.

For coaches, understanding RT helps in designing training that mimics real competitive demands. If athletes only practice with predictable cues, they’re not preparing the decision-making part of RT. Using variable or delayed start signals trains their motor systems to prepare more efficiently under uncertainty — just as they must in actual performance.

For instructors, especially in PE or dance, preparation translates into focus and anticipation. Before movement starts, the student’s attention should shift from external distractions to internal readiness. Teaching students to take a breath, visualize the movement, or anticipate the rhythm enhances coordination and timing because it activates the same preparatory processes discussed in the text.

For physical therapists, preparation is essential for safety. Patients recovering from injury or neurological impairment need more time to prepare because their systems process slower. Encouraging them to “pause and prepare” before standing or walking helps them recruit the right muscles, maintain balance, and prevent falls.

In all these contexts, the goal is the same: to ensure that the nervous system is properly prepared before movement starts — optimizing performance, accuracy, and safety.

1.8 Conclusion: Reaction Time as an Index of Preparation

• RT reveals the time and processes involved in preparing movement.
• The motor system must identify, select, and program before any action begins.
• Understanding RT helps improve performance, teaching, and rehabilitation.

flowchart TB A[Signal] --> B[Brain Preparation\n-neural Activation-] B --> C[Movement Begins]

Figure 1: Flowchart demonstrating action preparation processes

To conclude, reaction time gives us a powerful way to study what happens before we move. The short interval between a signal and a response may seem trivial, but it contains multiple layers of processing — perceiving the signal, choosing an action, and programming the muscles to perform it.

When we measure RT, we’re not just timing reflexes — we’re measuring how efficiently the motor control system prepares for action. A longer RT doesn’t mean someone is lazy or unskilled; it often reflects greater complexity or uncertainty in the situation.

For practitioners — whether in sport, education, or rehabilitation — understanding these principles allows us to design activities that match or enhance a person’s preparation needs. In essence, RT serves as a mirror of the preparation process, helping us understand how the brain readies the body for coordinated, effective movement.

Every action, from a sprinter’s start to a patient’s first step, begins with preparation — and reaction time is how we measure that invisible yet critical phase.

2 Objective 2: Understanding Hick’s Law and Motor Preparation

Breaking the Ice

Video Overview

Audio Overview

Study these questions before coming to class:
1. When you’re driving and see multiple lane options ahead, do you notice your decision time getting slower? What’s happening in your brain?

Concise Answer: You’re experiencing Hick’s Law! More choices create logarithmically longer reaction times as your brain processes more decision alternatives.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates Hick’s Law. When facing multiple lane options, your brain processes each alternative, and more choices lead to longer decision times. The relationship is logarithmic, meaning the time increases more gradually than the number of options. Experienced drivers overcome this by using selective attention and pattern recognition to quickly eliminate poor options, effectively reducing the number of choices they consciously consider.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Soccer coaches teach players to quickly scan the field and identify 2-3 viable passing options rather than considering all teammates. This reduces choice complexity and speeds up decision-making according to Hick’s Law. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors simplify complex choreography by teaching students to focus on key decision points rather than every possible movement variation. This reduces cognitive load and improves performance timing. - Physical Therapists: When teaching patients to navigate obstacles, PTs start with 2-3 clear path options rather than complex environments. As patients improve, they gradually increase environmental complexity while teaching decision-making strategies.

2. Why does choosing what to watch on Netflix with 15,000+ options feel overwhelming compared to picking from 3 TV channels?

Concise Answer: Hick’s Law predicts that decision time increases logarithmically with choices - more options require exponentially more cognitive processing time!

Comprehensive Answer: This is Hick’s Law in the digital age. With 3 channels, your brain makes about 2 binary decisions, but with 15,000 Netflix options, it’s about 14—seven times more processing. The overwhelming feeling is due to choice overload and decision fatigue. Netflix’s design uses categories and recommendations to artificially reduce the perceived number of choices, making it easier to decide.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Basketball coaches use set plays with 2-3 predetermined options rather than letting players consider all possible moves. This application of Hick’s Law speeds up decision-making during fast-paced games. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): PE teachers structure activities with clear, limited choices (e.g., “pass, dribble, or shoot”) rather than overwhelming students with unlimited options. This reduces decision paralysis and improves participation. - Physical Therapists: PTs present rehabilitation exercises in small, manageable sets rather than showing patients dozens of possible exercises at once. This prevents overwhelm and improves treatment compliance.

3. When you’re at a restaurant with a huge menu versus a simple 3-item menu, which feels easier to decide on?

Concise Answer: The 3-item menu! Fewer choices mean faster decisions according to Hick’s Law - your brain processes fewer alternatives more quickly.

Comprehensive Answer: This illustrates Hick’s Law in consumer decisions. A 3-item menu requires about 2 binary decisions, while a 50-item menu needs about 6. Restaurants with large menus often see even greater delays due to comparison complexity and regret anticipation. Good menu design uses strategies like highlighting recommendations to reduce the effective number of choices and make decisions easier.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Track coaches give sprinters 2-3 specific race strategy options (“aggressive start,” “steady pace,” or “strong finish”) rather than countless tactical possibilities. This speeds up in-race decision-making when split-second choices matter. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach complex routines by offering 2-3 stylistic choices at decision points rather than unlimited creative freedom. This prevents analysis paralysis while maintaining artistic expression. - Physical Therapists: PTs offer patients 2-3 pain management strategies per session rather than overwhelming them with every possible technique. This improves patient decision-making and treatment adherence.

4. Have you noticed that skilled video game players seem to react instantly even in complex games with many possible moves?

Concise Answer: Expert gamers use pattern recognition and anticipation to effectively reduce their choice set, circumventing Hick’s Law through experience and selective attention!

Comprehensive Answer: This shows how expertise modifies Hick’s Law. Novices process every possible move, but experts use pattern recognition and selective attention to reduce the number of choices they consider. Through practice, they develop automatic filtering systems, allowing them to focus on the most relevant options. They aren’t processing more choices faster; they’re processing fewer meaningful choices from the same environment.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Experienced tennis coaches teach players to recognize key opponent patterns (serve tendencies, favorite shots) to reduce choice complexity during points. Instead of considering all possible returns, players focus on 2-3 high-probability options. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Advanced dance students learn to recognize musical patterns and anticipate choreographic sequences, effectively reducing their choice set from infinite possibilities to a few logical options that fit the style and rhythm. - Physical Therapists: Expert PTs quickly recognize movement patterns in patients and focus on 2-3 key intervention strategies rather than considering every possible treatment. This expertise allows for faster, more effective clinical decision-making.

5. When you’re trying to parallel park with someone giving you multiple simultaneous directions, does your response time slow down?

Concise Answer: Yes! Multiple simultaneous inputs increase your choice complexity, creating higher Index of Difficulty and slower reaction times according to Hick’s Law.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates Hick’s Law under cognitive load. Multiple directions increase the Index of Difficulty as your brain processes competing motor programs. This leads to slower responses due to attentional switching and response conflict. Expert instructors give sequential instructions, applying Hick’s Law by reducing the choice set at any given moment.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Effective coaches give one instruction at a time during skill development rather than multiple simultaneous corrections. For example, “focus on your follow-through” rather than “keep your eye on the ball, bend your knees, and follow through.” - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors break complex sequences into single elements, teaching “step-touch-step” before adding arm movements. This prevents cognitive overload and reduces reaction time delays during learning. - Physical Therapists: PTs give patients one movement cue at a time during gait training (“lift your foot higher”) rather than multiple simultaneous instructions. This application of Hick’s Law improves movement quality and reduces cognitive burden.

2.1 Objective 2: Understanding Hick’s Law and Motor Preparation

• Objective: Explain how Hick’s Law describes the relationship between the number of alternatives in a choice-RT situation and reaction time (RT).
• Focus:
  • Task and situational factors influencing preparation
  • How the number of possible responses affects RT
  • Practical implications for skill performance and training

In this objective, we’re focusing on a specific task factor that influences how long it takes to prepare and initiate movement — the number of possible response choices.

Researchers have consistently shown that when we have to choose between several possible actions, our reaction time gets longer. This relationship is summarized by Hick’s Law, which predicts that RT increases in a systematic and predictable way as the number of stimulus-response alternatives increases.

Understanding this law helps us explain why some movements can be executed almost instantly — like pressing a single button when a light appears — while others, like responding to a complex sports play, require more time to prepare.

So, as we go through this section, keep in mind: Hick’s Law links information processing with motor preparation, giving us a mathematical way to predict how choice complexity influences RT.

2.2 Task and Situation Characteristics: Number of Response Choices

• One of the most powerful predictors of RT is the number of response alternatives available.
• As the number of alternatives increases, the time required to prepare and initiate movement also increases.
• This is especially evident in choice-RT tasks, where a person must select one response from several possibilities.

Simple diagram contrasting simple RT (1 stimulus, 1 response) with choice RT (multiple stimuli and responses

The textbook makes it clear that one of the strongest and most consistent factors affecting preparation time is the number of available responses.

Let’s think about what’s happening inside the nervous system. In a simple reaction-time task, there’s only one possible signal and one corresponding response — for instance, pressing a button when a light comes on. Since there’s no uncertainty, the motor system can almost fully prepare in advance, and reaction time is short.

Now compare that to a choice reaction-time task, where there might be two or more possible signals, each requiring a different response. For example, pressing one button for a red light and another for a green light. In this case, you can’t pre-program a single movement — your brain must first identify the correct signal and then select the appropriate response.

That extra decision-making step adds measurable time to the preparation process. The key point here is that every additional alternative adds more information that must be processed before movement begins, which in turn increases reaction time.

2.3 Hick’s Law: The Mathematical Relationship

• Hick’s Law (Hick, 1952) predicts that RT increases logarithmically as the number of stimulus-response choices increases.
• Expressed as: Choice RT = k [log₂ (N + 1)] where k = constant and N = number of possible choices.
• This means RT doesn’t increase linearly but levels off as the number of choices grows.

Predicted reaction times (RTs), according to Hick’s law

2.4 Why the Relationship Matters: Information and Preparation

• Hick’s Law shows that decision complexity — not just movement difficulty — determines how long preparation takes.
• RT increases with the amount of information that must be processed.
• The log₂ function reflects the number of yes/no decisions required to select the correct response.

Hick’s Law teaches us that what slows people down in choice situations isn’t physical limitation — it’s information load.

Every time we add another possible response, the brain must make an additional decision to identify which one fits the situation. The key insight here is that RT increases with information, not with the number of muscles or the size of the movement.

In information theory terms, each choice can be represented as a yes/no decision — a binary bit. For example, if you have two possible responses, you need one decision to pick the correct one. If you have four options, you need two binary decisions. For eight options, three binary decisions. Each decision step adds to the total preparation time.

That’s why in sports or driving situations, even experienced performers slow down slightly when faced with more unpredictable or complex sets of choices. The more information to process, the more time the brain needs to prepare.

So, this relationship reinforces the idea that motor preparation is a cognitive process — the brain evaluates alternatives, eliminates incorrect ones, and programs the chosen response before any movement begins.

2.5 A Closer Look: Hick’s Law in Sport Performance

• In dynamic sports, athletes face many possible stimuli and responses.
• According to Hick’s Law, more choices lead to longer decision times — unless experience allows selective attention to key cues.
• Skilled athletes minimize RT by narrowing down relevant stimuli.

Click image to enlarge

Hick’s Law applies perfectly to real-world performance. In the A Closer Look example from the text, the authors describe a soccer player dribbling the ball toward an approaching defender. The player has several possible actions: continue dribbling, pass to a teammate, or take a shot.

If the player considered all possible movements and all player positions on the field, the number of “stimulus-response choices” would be huge. According to Hick’s Law, this would drastically increase reaction time — far more than the situation allows.

However, skilled players don’t consciously evaluate every option. Through practice, they learn to focus on the minimal cues that matter most — such as the defender’s movement angle or a teammate’s open space. By doing so, they effectively reduce the number of meaningful alternatives, which reduces the amount of information they must process.

This is how experts appear to “react instantly.” It’s not that they break Hick’s Law; rather, they simplify the decision environment through selective attention and anticipation. Their preparation phase becomes faster because they’ve learned to ignore irrelevant possibilities and focus only on the most probable options.

2.6 Practical Application: Reducing Choice Complexity

Coaches

• Train athletes to recognize key cues early, reducing unnecessary options.
• Example: Defensive drills where players learn to anticipate likely movements from opponents.

Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.)

• Simplify initial learning environments by limiting possible responses.
• Gradually increase choices as students gain confidence and automaticity.

Physical Therapists

• In rehabilitation, avoid overwhelming patients with too many simultaneous movement decisions.
• Progress from simple, one-choice tasks to multi-choice activities as cognitive-motor coordination improves.

Practical application examples

Understanding Hick’s Law gives us valuable strategies for practice and instruction.

For coaches, it means teaching athletes to manage choice complexity. In game situations, athletes who learn to pick up early cues — like an opponent’s body orientation — can eliminate less likely options and make faster, more accurate responses. Drills that recreate real decision-making situations help reduce RT through experience and anticipation.

For instructors, especially in PE or dance, Hick’s Law reminds us to start simple. When beginners are faced with too many cues or movement choices, their preparation time slows dramatically. By reducing the number of possible responses and gradually increasing complexity, we help them develop efficient information processing and movement readiness.

For physical therapists, the same principle applies in a clinical context. Patients recovering from injury or neurological impairment often have slower processing speed. Presenting too many simultaneous instructions can overload their motor preparation system. Starting with simple, single-response tasks and slowly adding choices helps retrain both cognitive and motor readiness safely.

In short, by managing the number of alternatives, we can improve both the speed and quality of action preparation.

2.7 Conclusion: Hick’s Law and Motor Preparation

• Hick’s Law demonstrates that reaction time increases logarithmically with the number of stimulus-response alternatives.
• This reflects the information processing demands of movement preparation.
• Skilled performers shorten RT by narrowing relevant options through experience and anticipation.

Different scenarios illustrating Hick’s Law

To wrap up, Hick’s Law provides one of the clearest connections between cognition and motor control. It shows that preparation time is determined not just by how fast muscles can move, but by how efficiently the brain processes information to select the correct action.

As the number of choices increases, RT increases in a predictable, logarithmic fashion — meaning the first few additional choices add a lot of time, but beyond a point, the increases become smaller.

In real life, skilled performers overcome this limitation not by defying the law, but by reducing effective choices through practice and experience. They recognize patterns, anticipate outcomes, and focus only on the most relevant cues, which dramatically shortens their preparation phase.

So, Hick’s Law reminds us that speed of movement begins with speed of decision-making. The brain’s ability to organize, filter, and program the right response underlies every fast and accurate action we perform.

3 Objective 3: Task and Situation Characteristics Influencing Action Preparation

Breaking the Ice

Video Overview

Audio Overview

Study these questions before coming to class:
1. Have you ever noticed how a soccer goalie seems to “know” which way to dive before the ball is even kicked? What allows this anticipation?

Concise Answer: Goalies use predictability cues and precue information to reduce reaction time - they’re reading body position, run-up angle, and kicker habits to prepare their response early!

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates predictability effects on reaction time. Expert goalies use advance visual cues (kicker’s approach, body position) to predict the most likely direction and bias their motor preparation. This is the precue technique in action, allowing partial motor programming before the stimulus. When correct, they gain a 200-300ms advantage. When wrong, they pay a cost in slower recovery. This cost-benefit trade-off is central to understanding how predictability affects preparation.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Baseball coaches teach batters to recognize pitcher tendencies and count-specific patterns (“he throws fastballs on 2-0 counts 80% of the time”). This precue information allows batters to bias their preparation and reduce reaction time when the prediction is correct. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach students to anticipate musical patterns and partner movements. Students learn to read visual cues from their partner’s body position to predict the next move, reducing reaction time in partnered routines. - Physical Therapists: PTs help patients with balance issues learn to recognize environmental cues that predict instability (uneven surfaces, moving objects). This advance information allows patients to pre-adjust their postural responses and prevent falls.

2. Why does it feel easier to turn on a stove burner when the control knob is directly below the burner versus when they’re arranged randomly?

Concise Answer: This demonstrates stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility! When controls match the spatial layout of burners, your brain processes the connection faster, reducing reaction time.

Comprehensive Answer: This is a classic example of stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility. When controls are spatially aligned with their burners, there’s a natural mapping that your brain processes quickly. Incompatible layouts require cognitive translation, adding to reaction time and increasing errors. Good interface design leverages S-R compatibility to reduce cognitive load, which is why well-designed dashboards and tools feel “natural.”

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Football coaches design plays where hand signals spatially match the direction of the play (pointing right for right-side plays). This S-R compatibility reduces player reaction time and decreases miscommunication during fast-paced games. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): PE teachers arrange equipment stations to match natural movement flow (e.g., placing jumping equipment in sequence from low to high). This spatial compatibility reduces cognitive load and improves student response times during circuit training. - Physical Therapists: PTs arrange therapy equipment and exercises to match natural body mechanics and spatial relationships. For example, placing resistance bands at natural pulling angles reduces cognitive processing time and improves exercise execution.

3. When you’re waiting for a traffic light that changes on a predictable timer versus one that changes randomly, which feels more stressful?

Concise Answer: Random timing feels more stressful! Irregular foreperiods increase reaction time and create uncertainty - your motor system can’t optimize preparation timing.

Comprehensive Answer: This illustrates how foreperiod regularity affects motor preparation and stress. With predictable timing, your nervous system can optimize attention and motor readiness. Irregular foreperiods create a dilemma: maintain high alertness (which is fatiguing) or risk being unprepared. This uncertainty leads to sustained arousal and stress. Variable foreperiods not only increase reaction time but also stress hormone levels.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Swimming coaches use consistent “ready-set-go” timing during practice starts to optimize swimmers’ preparation. Irregular timing during training would increase reaction time and create unnecessary stress that doesn’t benefit race performance. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors establish consistent musical cues and timing patterns so students can anticipate transitions. Irregular timing increases cognitive load and prevents students from developing smooth, automatic movement sequences. - Physical Therapists: PTs use consistent countdown timing (“3-2-1-go”) during balance and mobility exercises. This predictable foreperiod allows patients to optimize their preparation and reduces anxiety about when to initiate movement, improving success rates.

4. Have you ever tried to catch a ball while simultaneously answering a phone call? What happens to your reaction time and accuracy?

Concise Answer: Both tasks suffer! This demonstrates the psychological refractory period - your brain can’t fully process two stimuli simultaneously, creating delays in the second response.

Comprehensive Answer: This scenario demonstrates the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP), a bottleneck in information processing. When two stimuli requiring responses occur close together, the second response is delayed. Processing visual information for the ball and auditory information for the call creates central processing interference. This isn’t just “distraction”; it’s a structural limitation. This explains why hands-free phone conversations while driving still impair reaction time.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Basketball coaches teach players to avoid processing multiple stimuli simultaneously during fast breaks. Instead of watching the ball AND listening to teammates AND scanning for defenders, players learn to sequence their attention to avoid PRP delays. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): PE teachers avoid giving verbal instructions while students are processing visual demonstrations. They separate the visual and auditory information to prevent PRP interference and improve learning efficiency. - Physical Therapists: PTs structure dual-task training carefully, avoiding simultaneous cognitive and motor demands that would create PRP delays. They progress from single tasks to dual tasks gradually, understanding that simultaneous processing creates inherent delays.

5. Why does typing feel slower when you switch from a familiar keyboard to a completely different layout (like from QWERTY to Dvorak)?

Concise Answer: You’re experiencing massive stimulus-response incompatibility! Your motor system has learned automatic key locations, and the new layout requires conscious cognitive translation for each letter.

Comprehensive Answer: This is an extreme case of stimulus-response incompatibility disrupting automated motor programs. With a familiar layout, typing is automatic. Switching layouts causes cognitive-motor interference because visual cues trigger old motor programs that must be consciously overridden. Each keystroke requires deliberate attention, increasing reaction time from ~150ms to 800-1500ms as you switch from procedural to declarative memory.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: When athletes switch sports or modify techniques, coaches understand that old motor programs will interfere with new ones. Tennis players switching from Western to Eastern grip experience S-R incompatibility that slows reaction time until new automatic patterns develop. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors recognize that students learning new styles (ballet to hip-hop) experience motor program interference. Reaction times slow as students consciously override familiar movement patterns to learn new ones. - Physical Therapists: PTs working with stroke patients understand that relearning movements involves overcoming old motor programs. Patients experience slow reaction times as they consciously rebuild movement patterns that were once automatic, requiring patience and repetitive practice.

3.1 Objective 3: Task and Situation Characteristics Influencing Action Preparation

• Objective: Describe various task and situation factors that affect how long the motor system takes to prepare an action.
• Focus:
  • How different task demands (e.g., complexity, accuracy) and situational features (e.g., predictability, timing) modify reaction time (RT).
  • How understanding these influences helps optimize performance and learning.

Conceptual overview diagram

Now that we understand that action preparation requires time — and that RT reflects this preparation — the next question is what influences how long that preparation takes?

The authors of our textbook, identify several task and situational characteristics that consistently affect reaction time and, therefore, the amount of preparation needed.

These factors include the number of choices available (as we discussed in Hick’s Law), the predictability of the correct response, the accuracy or complexity of the movement, and even the timing between signals or repetitions.

Each of these variables changes how much the motor system must plan before it acts. For example, having to decide between many options, performing a precise movement, or responding to unpredictable signals all increase preparation time.

As we go through each, I’ll highlight what the research shows and how these findings apply to real-world motor performance — from sports to therapy.

3.2 Predictability of the Correct Response Choice

• When one response is more predictable than others, RT decreases.
• The brain can pre-select the likely response, reducing preparation time.
• Studied using the precue technique, where advance information helps narrow the response options.

Diagram showing advance “precue” information (e.g., direction or limb) leading to faster RT

3.3 Probability of Precue Correctness: The Cost-Benefit Trade-Off

• If the precue is usually correct, the performer benefits from biasing preparation toward that response.
• If it’s incorrect, RT becomes slower — a “cost” for being wrong.
• This balance between benefits and costs is called the cost-benefit trade-off.

Effects on RT of different probabilities of precue correctness

Building on predictability, the authors of our textbook describe how the accuracy of advance information affects preparation. This is called the probability of precue correctness.

Larish and Stelmach’s 1982 study showed that when participants received a precue that was correct 80% of the time, they responded faster when it was indeed correct — they had prepped that movement in advance. However, when the precue was wrong, their RT became longer than normal because they had to “reprogram” the movement after realizing their mistake.

This is the cost-benefit trade-off: biasing your preparation toward one likely action gives you a benefit when you’re right but a cost when you’re wrong.

Think about a basketball defender. If they know that a certain player passes the ball 80% of the time, they’ll start preparing to block the pass. If the player shoots instead, the defender’s preparation bias works against them, and their RT to react to the shot will be slower.

So, probability and bias shape preparation: when the precue is reliable, we gain speed; when it’s misleading, we pay for it in slower reactions.

3.4 Stimulus-Response Compatibility (S–R Compatibility)

• S–R compatibility: the natural correspondence between stimulus and response locations or features.
• High compatibility → faster RT; low compatibility → slower RT.
• Includes spatial relationships and meaning-based effects like the Stroop effect.

Referenced images:

Another strong influence on reaction time is stimulus-response compatibility — how naturally the stimulus and the required response “match.”

When the stimulus and response are spatially aligned, reaction times are shorter because the mapping between perception and action is intuitive. For example, if lights and buttons are arranged in the same order, pressing the correct button is almost automatic. But when the arrangement is mismatched — say, lights are vertical and buttons are horizontal — RT increases because the brain must translate the stimulus into a less natural response.

This principle is critical in human factors design. The classic stove-top example in the text shows that controls arranged in the same layout as burners are much safer and faster to use than incompatible ones.

The Stroop effect illustrates another form of incompatibility. When a person must name the ink color of a word that spells a different color (e.g., the word “BLUE” printed in red ink), their RT is slower. The conflict between the word’s meaning and its color causes interference in response selection.

So, S–R compatibility tells us that the brain prefers natural, consistent mappings. The less compatible the situation, the longer the time needed to select and prepare the correct response.

3.5 Foreperiod Length Regularity

• The foreperiod is the interval between a warning signal and the actual “go” signal.
• RT is faster when this interval is consistent across trials.
• Irregular foreperiods create uncertainty and increase RT.

3.6 Movement Complexity

• As movement complexity increases, so does RT.
• More complex actions require more planning steps before initiation.
• Classic evidence: Henry & Rogers (1960) ballistic arm movement experiment.

Movement complexity refers to how many parts or elements an action includes. The more complex the movement, the longer the motor system takes to prepare it.

Henry and Rogers (1960) tested this using three rapid arm movements that varied in complexity. Participants either released a key, reached forward to grab a ball, or performed a sequence of reaching, striking, reversing, and grasping movements.

The simple movement had the shortest RT, while the complex movement — involving multiple components — had the longest. Importantly, the extra time wasn’t due to muscle sluggishness but to the increased planning load before the movement started.

They concluded that the brain prepares an entire movement sequence in advance — like loading a full program before pressing “run.” The more steps in that program, the longer the preparation.

This finding was crucial for supporting the idea of motor programming — that movement plans are organized before they are executed.

3.7 Movement Accuracy

• RT increases as accuracy demands increase.
• Smaller targets or narrower constraints require more precise motor programming.
• Related concept: Fitts’ Law, linking accuracy demands with movement time.

Accuracy is another factor that increases preparation time. When a task demands precise control, the brain needs extra time to program the necessary constraints on limb motion.

In manual aiming tasks, for instance, when the target is small or narrow, reaction time increases. Sidaway and colleagues found that participants took longer to initiate movements toward smaller targets and that the variability in their first movements depended on the difficulty of the next target.

This shows that accuracy demands influence preparation before movement even begins. It’s not just that we move slower during the action (as Fitts’ Law explains) — we also take longer to plan precise actions in advance.

The reason is that fine accuracy requires the motor system to program the correct force, direction, and coordination patterns ahead of time, reducing error potential during execution.

3.8 Repetition of a Movement Pattern

• RT decreases when the same movement is repeated on consecutive trials.
• With repetition, the motor system can reuse previous programming, reducing preparation time.
• The effect diminishes after several repetitions.

Repetition has a powerful but short-lived effect on preparation. When a person performs the same movement several times in a row, RT for subsequent attempts becomes shorter.

Why? Because the response selection process becomes more efficient — the brain can reuse the previous movement program rather than constructing a new one from scratch.

This explains why practice drills that involve repetitive actions, such as repeated serves in tennis or kicks in soccer, often feel smoother and faster after the first few attempts.

However, this benefit plateaus. After several repetitions, RT stops decreasing, likely because the system has already reached its optimal level of preparation for that specific response.

3.9 Time between Different Responses: The Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)

• When two signals occur close together, the second response is delayed.
• This delay is the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP).
• The brain must finish processing the first response before it can begin preparing the second.

The psychological refractory period, or PRP, describes a fascinating limitation in action preparation.

Imagine a basketball player fakes left and then quickly moves right. The defender reacts to the first movement — the fake — and then must adjust to the second. The defender’s second reaction is slower because their motor system is still completing the first response.

In Figure 8.3 of our textbook, this delay is shown as the “PRP interval” — the time between the defender’s first and second reaction. The player performing the fake gains extra time to move because the opponent’s second movement is effectively “on hold” while the first is being processed.

This phenomenon occurs because the brain’s response selection system can only handle one decision at a time. The second response must wait until the first has cleared the processing channel.

Understanding PRP helps athletes design effective fakes and teaches coaches how to structure practice drills that exploit or overcome this delay in rapid decision-making.

3.10 Practical Application: Managing Task and Situation Factors in Preparation

Coaches

• Design drills that simulate real game unpredictability while developing cue recognition.
• Example: vary opponents’ movements or timing cues so athletes learn to adjust preparation to changing response demands.
• Teach athletes to recognize reliable precues (e.g., body position, gaze direction) to reduce decision time and avoid false starts.

Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.)

• Begin with simplified environments — few choices, high compatibility — then progressively add complexity and accuracy demands.
• Example: in dance or gymnastics, start with predictable rhythm cues before introducing timing variations or directional changes.
• Highlight “attention to signal” versus “attention to movement” so learners know when to focus on the cue that initiates action.

Physical Therapists

• Structure rehabilitation tasks from simple to complex, allowing patients adequate preparation time.
• Example: start with single, consistent cues (constant foreperiods), then gradually add variable or dual-task elements.
• Teach patients to anticipate and prepare for movement safely, reducing risk of falls and optimizing coordination.

3.11 Conclusion: Task and Situation Factors in Action Preparation

• Many task and situational characteristics influence how long preparation takes.
• RT increases with:
  • More choices
  • Lower predictability
  • Incompatible stimuli and responses
  • Greater complexity or accuracy demands
  • Short intervals between different signals
• Recognizing these effects helps improve performance and learning.

To summarize, action preparation is influenced by a network of task and situational variables. Each of these changes how much time the motor system needs to identify, select, and organize an appropriate response.

Preparation time increases with more alternatives (Hick’s Law), lower predictability, spatial or cognitive incompatibility between stimuli and responses, complex or precise movements, and quick successions of signals (PRP). It decreases with familiarity, repetition, and consistent timing cues.

By understanding these relationships, coaches, educators, and therapists can better manage practice conditions — for instance, simplifying tasks for beginners, introducing variability gradually, and allowing sufficient preparation time for safety and accuracy.

Ultimately, every factor we discussed shapes how efficiently the brain prepares the body to act. Recognizing these influences gives us tools to optimize both performance speed and movement quality.

4 Objective 4: Performer Characteristics Influencing Action Preparation

Breaking the Ice

Video Overview

Audio Overview

Study these questions before coming to class:
1. Have you ever been “in the zone” during a sport or activity where your reactions felt incredibly fast? What mental state creates this peak performance?

Concise Answer: You achieved optimal alertness! Peak reaction time occurs when you’re highly focused but not over-aroused - your attention was perfectly calibrated to detect signals quickly.

Comprehensive Answer: This describes the optimal alertness state for motor performance. Being “in the zone” means achieving the ideal level of arousal where reaction time is minimized. This state involves selective attention, optimal alertness, and a sensory set (focus on the environment) over a motor set (focus on movement). Neurologically, it’s a balance between sympathetic (speed) and parasympathetic (precision) activation. “Trying harder” can backfire by over-activating the nervous system and slowing reaction time.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Tennis coaches help players achieve optimal alertness through pre-serve routines and breathing techniques. They teach players to focus on the opponent’s toss and racquet position (sensory set) rather than overthinking their own swing mechanics (motor set). - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach students to achieve “flow state” by focusing on the music and partner cues rather than consciously controlling every movement. This optimal alertness allows for faster reactions and more fluid performance. - Physical Therapists: PTs help patients find the optimal arousal level for balance and mobility tasks. Too much anxiety slows reactions, while too little attention increases fall risk. They teach relaxation and focusing techniques to achieve optimal alertness.

2. When you’re really tired or sleepy, do you notice your reaction time getting slower, even for simple tasks like hitting the snooze button?

Concise Answer: Absolutely! Fatigue and sleep deprivation reduce alertness and vigilance, directly slowing reaction time by impairing your nervous system’s readiness to detect and respond to signals.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates how performer state affects action preparation. Sleep deprivation and fatigue create bottlenecks in the reaction time chain: reduced alertness, impaired vigilance, and slower neural transmission. Even simple tasks are affected because they involve the same neural processes. 24 hours without sleep can slow reaction time by 50-100ms, equivalent to legal intoxication. This highlights the importance of fatigue management in high-stakes environments.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Soccer coaches monitor players’ sleep patterns and fatigue levels, knowing that tired players have significantly slower reaction times. They adjust training intensity and playing time based on alertness levels to maintain optimal performance and reduce injury risk. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): PE teachers recognize that tired students have slower reaction times and are more prone to accidents. They modify activities when students show signs of fatigue, avoiding high-speed or complex coordination tasks that require quick reactions. - Physical Therapists: PTs schedule demanding balance and coordination exercises earlier in therapy sessions when patients are most alert. They understand that fatigue compromises reaction time and increases fall risk, so they prioritize safety-critical activities when vigilance is optimal.

3. Why do sprinters perform better when they focus on the starting gun rather than thinking about their leg movements?

Concise Answer: This demonstrates sensory set versus motor set! Focusing on the signal (gun) rather than the movement (legs) creates faster reaction time and better performance.

Comprehensive Answer: This illustrates the effect of attention focus on reaction time. A sensory set (focus on the starting gun) leads to faster reaction times than a motor set (focus on leg movements). This is because a sensory set optimizes signal detection, while a motor set creates cognitive interference that disrupts automatic motor programs. External attention focus consistently produces better results than internal focus. The key is to let movement happen automatically while attending to the signals that trigger it.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Baseball coaches teach batters to focus on the pitcher’s release point (sensory set) rather than thinking about their swing mechanics (motor set). Research shows this external focus reduces reaction time by 20-50ms and improves batting performance. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors teach students to listen to musical cues and watch their partner’s movements (sensory set) rather than consciously controlling their own footwork (motor set). This approach improves timing and reduces hesitation. - Physical Therapists: PTs teach patients with movement disorders to focus on external targets or environmental cues rather than their body movements. For example, focusing on stepping over lines (sensory set) rather than thinking about lifting legs (motor set) improves gait timing and reduces freezing episodes.

4. Have you noticed that when you expect to perform well, you often do better, but when you’re worried about messing up, your reaction time seems sluggish?

Concise Answer: Performance expectations directly affect action preparation! Positive expectancy enhances neural efficiency and coordination, while anxiety creates cognitive interference that slows reaction time.

Comprehensive Answer: This shows how performance expectancy is part of action preparation. Positive expectancy enhances neural efficiency, optimizes muscle activation, and improves attention. Negative expectancy and anxiety create cognitive-motor interference, as worry consumes working memory and increases muscle tension. This is a measurable physiological change. Elite performers cultivate positive expectancy through mental rehearsal and confidence-building routines.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Basketball coaches use positive visualization and success imagery before free throws. They teach players to expect successful shots, which research shows reduces reaction time and improves motor coordination compared to focusing on avoiding misses. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance instructors create positive performance expectations through encouraging feedback and success-focused language. Students who expect to perform well show faster reaction times to musical cues and smoother movement transitions. - Physical Therapists: PTs foster positive expectations about recovery and movement capability. Patients who believe they can successfully complete balance tasks show faster protective reactions and better postural responses than those who expect to fail or fall.

5. When you’re watching a suspenseful movie or waiting for an important phone call, do you find yourself jumping at unexpected sounds?

Concise Answer: You’re observing a startle-driven response under high arousal. Elevated sympathetic activation lowers the response threshold, so the motor system fires faster (shorter RT) but with poorer response selection (more false alarms).

Comprehensive Answer: From a kinesiology perspective, arousal modulates action preparation via changes in postural set, muscle tone, and response inhibition. Under heightened vigilance, baseline EMG activity and joint co-contraction often increase, sensory gating narrows, and a StartReact-like effect can trigger pre-potent motor programs earlier. The benefit is speed (shorter premotor RT), but the cost is reduced selectivity and inhibition—people “jump” to irrelevant sounds or fakes. This reflects the classic speed–accuracy trade-off: as arousal rises, response speed improves while discrimination and inhibitory control decline. Optimal performance sits at a mid-range arousal with stable posture, efficient co-contraction, and preserved signal discrimination.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Train goalies/defenders with go vs. fake drills to couple fast reaction with response inhibition (hold–react). Use “quiet eye” and paced breathing between reps to reduce excessive co-contraction and premature movements to deceptive cues. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Use auditory go/no-go and start–stop games to practice withholding under high arousal. Cue soft knees, stacked posture, and external focus (“watch the ball’s flight,” “listen for the second clap”) to manage tone and improve discrimination. - Physical Therapists: For patients with exaggerated startle that destabilizes gait or balance, apply graded acoustic exposure, perturbation training with “pause unless go” cues, and breathing/relaxation to lower baseline EMG tone. Incorporate metronome or rhythmic cueing to stabilize postural set while maintaining rapid protective reactions.

4.1 Objective 4: Performer Characteristics Influencing Action Preparation

• Objective: Describe performer-related factors that influence how long and how effectively the motor system prepares for movement.
• Focus:
  • Alertness and vigilance — readiness to detect and respond to signals.
  • Attention focus — whether attention is on the signal or the movement.
  • Expectations and psychological states that modify preparation efficiency.

Up to now, we’ve looked at how task and situation factors affect preparation time. But the performer also plays a crucial role.

Two people performing the same task under identical conditions can show very different reaction times — often because of differences in alertness, attention, or mental set.

This objective explores these internal performer factors. We’ll look at how alertness (short-term and long-term), focus of attention, and even expectations about performance influence the efficiency of action preparation.

In practical terms, these are the qualities that separate a sluggish start from a sharp one, or a distracted performer from a focused, ready mover. Understanding them helps us train, teach, and rehabilitate people more effectively.

4.2 Alertness of the Performer

• The performer’s alertness level strongly affects both RT and performance quality.
• Optimal alertness shortens preparation time and enhances accuracy.
• A warning signal before the “go” cue helps raise and time this alertness.

Alertness refers to how ready a person is to detect and respond to a signal. The textbook emphasizes that alertness influences both the time to prepare and the quality of the resulting movement.

In reaction-time tasks, RT is shorter when the performer receives a warning signal — like “get ready” — a second or two before the “go” signal. This warning helps raise the nervous system’s readiness to an optimal level.

But timing matters. If the “go” signal appears too soon after the warning, the performer may not yet be fully alert; if it comes too late, alertness fades, and RT lengthens again. Studies suggest that the best foreperiod for maintaining optimal alertness ranges between 1 and 4 seconds.

This principle explains why starters in sprint races vary their timing — to prevent athletes from perfectly anticipating the signal. It also helps instructors or therapists structure practice so participants are attentive but not anxious.

Alertness, then, is about tuning the performer’s state — not too early, not too late — for the fastest, most accurate response.

4.3 Long-Term Maintenance of Alertness: Vigilance

• Vigilance = maintaining attention over long periods when signals appear infrequently.
• Performance deteriorates with time — RT slows, detection errors increase.
• Influenced by fatigue, sleep deprivation, and task monotony.

Vigilance is the long-term version of alertness — the ability to stay ready when signals appear only occasionally.

In many real-world tasks, from lifeguarding to air-traffic monitoring, performers must stay alert for long periods even though meaningful events happen rarely. The problem is that sustained attention fades over time. Studies since World War II have shown that after about 30 minutes, people start missing signals or responding more slowly.

Our textbook describes how sleep deprivation and mental fatigue worsen this decline. RT grows longer, and accuracy suffers. The nervous system essentially drifts into a lower state of readiness, even if the person thinks they’re still paying attention.

This concept has major implications: pilots, surgeons, and drivers all rely on vigilance. Coaches and therapists must also recognize that fatigue undermines preparation — whether it’s an athlete waiting for a play or a patient focusing on balance training.

Maintaining vigilance requires strategies like short breaks, task variation, and adequate rest — because even the most skilled performer can’t sustain high alertness indefinitely.

4.4 A Closer Look: Vigilance Problems Resulting from Closed-Head Injury

• Closed-head injury can severely impair vigilance and sustained attention.
• Patients show slower RTs and declining detection accuracy across time.
• Indicates difficulties maintaining preparation over extended tasks.

Research on individuals with closed-head injuries provides striking evidence of how vigilance depends on intact cognitive preparation systems.

Loken and colleagues (1995) compared patients with severe brain injuries to healthy individuals on a simple visual detection task. Participants watched for a solid blue circle to appear among other blue outlines across 200 trials lasting 20 minutes.

While healthy participants maintained stable detection times, those with closed-head injuries showed two clear problems:

First: Their overall RTs were slower, especially when the visual display became more complex.

Second: Their detection speed declined steadily as the session continued.

These results confirm that damage to attention and arousal systems impairs the ability to maintain readiness. Over time, the patients’ nervous systems struggled to sustain a preparatory state.

Clinically, this means therapists must account for reduced vigilance capacity — keeping sessions shorter, incorporating breaks, and providing more salient cues to re-engage attention. Preparation isn’t only about muscles; it’s also about the brain’s ability to stay alert and responsive.

4.5 Attention Focus: Signal vs. Movement (Sensory Set vs. Motor Set)

• Reaction time depends on where the performer’s attention is directed during preparation.
• Sensory set: attention focused on detecting the signal → faster RT.
• Motor set: attention focused on performing the movement → slower RT.

Where a performer focuses attention before movement dramatically affects preparation speed.

A sensory set means focusing on the stimulus — for example, the sound of a starting gun. A motor set means focusing on the movement itself — such as thinking, “I need to push off fast.”

Franklin Henry and later Christina found that people with a sensory set had significantly shorter reaction times — about 20 milliseconds faster — than those focused on the movement. Interestingly, movement time (the duration of the action) didn’t differ.

Why does this happen? Focusing on the signal allows the brain to detect and process the cue more efficiently. Focusing on the movement divides attention and delays the initiation process.

Jongsma and colleagues extended this to sport: sprinters who concentrated on the starting sound (sensory set) reacted faster than those thinking about their leg drive (motor set).

So, the best preparation strategy for fast responses is to focus on the signal, not the movement. Instructors and coaches can use this to teach athletes or students how to “listen for the cue” rather than overthinking their actions.

4.6 A Closer Look: Performance Expectations and Preparation

• Expectations about performance success influence movement efficiency.
• Positive expectancy → improved coordination and reduced energy use.
• Demonstrates that motivation and belief become part of the preparation process.

The textbook ends this section by connecting psychology and motor control through the idea of performance expectancy — how belief in success influences preparation.

In a study by Stoate, Wulf, and Lewthwaite (2012), experienced runners were told during a treadmill test that their oxygen consumption was among the top 10% for their group. This false but positive feedback increased their confidence and led to lower oxygen consumption over time — meaning they ran more efficiently.

Why? Because positive expectations likely enhanced the brain’s action preparation efficiency. When performers expect to succeed, they prepare movements more fluidly, without excess muscular tension or hesitancy.

This research reminds us that psychological readiness is intertwined with physiological preparation. Encouraging cues and feedback can literally alter the motor system’s state of readiness, improving performance efficiency even without physical changes.

Whether in sport or therapy, fostering positive expectations is a powerful way to enhance movement preparation.

4.7 Practical Application: Enhancing Performer Readiness

Coaches

• Use pre-performance routines and clear warning cues to optimize alertness.
• Train athletes to maintain focus on the signal, not the mechanics, during starts or reactions.
• Foster confidence and expectancy through positive, specific feedback.

Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.)

• Encourage students to maintain attention on cues and rhythm rather than overthinking execution.
• Use consistent preparatory signals and build routines that help sustain alertness in repetitive tasks.
• Manage fatigue by scheduling short focus intervals and brief rest breaks.

Physical Therapists

• Incorporate clear, predictable “ready–go” signals in therapy sessions to cue attention and readiness.
• Recognize that patients with cognitive or head injuries may have limited vigilance — provide rest and minimize distractions.
• Use encouraging feedback to enhance confidence and improve the efficiency of movement preparation.

These performer characteristics — alertness, attention, and expectancy — can be actively shaped through practice and environment.

For coaches, using consistent warning signals helps athletes time their readiness. Teaching them to attend to the signal rather than their own movement improves RT and reliability. Confidence-building feedback enhances expectation and leads to smoother, more efficient performance.

For instructors, classroom or studio settings can mirror these same principles. Students perform better when tasks have clear cues and rhythm. Managing fatigue and attention cycles ensures that long lessons don’t erode focus — much like vigilance declines in prolonged monitoring tasks.

For physical therapists, these concepts guide clinical pacing. Clear, consistent “ready–go” signals help patients with neurological or cognitive deficits engage their attention at the right time. Allowing rest between trials prevents vigilance lapses. Positive encouragement not only boosts motivation but also helps reestablish neural readiness for movement.

In all these cases, the key is shaping the performer’s internal state of preparation — aligning alertness, attention, and expectancy to optimize both reaction time and movement quality.

4.8 Conclusion: The Performer’s Role in Preparation

• Reaction time reflects not only task conditions but also performer state.
• Optimal preparation depends on:
  • Adequate alertness and vigilance
  • Focused attention on the signal
  • Positive expectations about performance
• Managing these factors enhances both speed and efficiency of action.

To conclude, the performer’s internal state is just as important as external task factors in determining reaction time and preparation quality.

A person who is alert, attentive to the right cues, and confident in their ability to succeed will prepare and act faster than someone who is tired, distracted, or uncertain.

These findings remind us that motor control is both cognitive and emotional. The nervous system’s readiness depends not only on sensory input but also on motivation and mental focus.

For teachers, coaches, and therapists, the message is clear: we must train not just the movement, but the mindset that precedes it. By shaping alertness, focus, and expectation, we can improve performance, learning, and recovery alike.

5 Objective 5: Action Preparation Activities During Action Preparation

Breaking the Ice

Video Overview

Audio Overview

Study these questions before coming to class:
1. Have you ever noticed that when you’re about to catch a ball, your body automatically tenses up and adjusts your posture before your hands even move?

Concise Answer: You’re experiencing anticipatory postural adjustments! Your brain automatically activates stabilizing muscles before the catching movement to prepare your body for the impact and maintain balance.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs), a key part of motor preparation. Before you initiate a primary movement like catching, your brain activates trunk, leg, and core muscles to create a stable foundation. These postural muscles activate 50-100 milliseconds before the prime movers. This is an automatic motor program that predicts the biomechanical demands of the movement and preemptively compensates for destabilizing forces.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Volleyball and baseball coaches train APAs with drills that cue core engagement just before ball contact (e.g., “brace-breathe-catch”). For fielders, emphasizing a split-step before the catch primes postural muscles to absorb impact and transition to throws quickly. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance teachers coach students to “prepare the center” before lifts or landings—engaging core and aligning posture milliseconds before movement to maintain balance and aesthetics. - Physical Therapists: PTs use perturbation training and medicine-ball catches to retrain APAs in patients with balance deficits. They cue pre-activation of trunk/hip musculature to reduce falls during unexpected loads.

2. When you reach for your coffee cup, do you grip it differently depending on whether it’s full or empty, even before you touch it?

Concise Answer: Yes! Your brain prepares force control and grip characteristics during action preparation based on visual information about the object’s likely weight and your intended use.

Comprehensive Answer: This reveals sophisticated object control preparation. Your motor system uses visual cues to pre-program grip force and movement dynamics. This includes force scaling (estimating weight), grip aperture programming (planning finger position), and optimizing the movement trajectory. Research shows this predictive control is so precise that people pre-adjust for different liquid levels in a cup. When predictions are wrong, you experience overshooting and surprise.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Strength coaches teach bar path setup and pre-lift “feel” to scale grip force for empty bar vs. loaded bar. Baseball players adjust bat grip and swing tempo pre-contact based on expected pitch speed and bat weight. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): In PE, students learn to grasp different balls (foam vs. medicine ball) by previewing size/weight and pre-scaling grip. In dance, partnering requires anticipatory grip adjustments for light vs. heavy lifts. - Physical Therapists: PTs train object manipulation with graded weights and transparent containers to restore predictive force scaling after neurologic injury, reducing over- or under-gripping that can cause slips.

3. Why do pianists’ hands seem to “know” where the next keys are before they’ve finished playing the current notes?

Concise Answer: Pianists prepare entire movement sequences during action preparation! Their brain programs multiple finger movements in advance, allowing smooth transitions between notes.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates sequence preparation. Expert pianists pre-program entire musical phrases, not just one note at a time. Reaction time increases with sequence length and complexity, indicating that multiple movements are planned simultaneously. This involves hierarchical organization (chunking phrases), temporal coordination (timing relationships), and biomechanical optimization (efficient hand positions). The “knowing” sensation reflects motor programs that operate below conscious awareness.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Gymnastics coaches break routines into “chunks” and rehearse sequences to enable pre-programming, improving transitions and reducing hesitation on apparatus. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Music and dance instructors teach phrase-based practice, so students prepare entire sequences (measures or phrases) rather than isolated moves, improving flow and timing. - Physical Therapists: PTs use sequence training (e.g., sit-to-stand-to-walk-to-turn) for neurological rehab, helping patients pre-program multi-step functional tasks for smoother execution.

4. Have you noticed that successful free-throw shooters in basketball often have very consistent pre-shot routines, even down to the timing?

Concise Answer: They’re using rhythmicity preparation! Consistent pre-performance rituals establish optimal timing and nervous system readiness for peak motor execution.

Comprehensive Answer: This illustrates rhythmicity preparation—using temporal patterns to optimize motor readiness. Consistent routines help synchronize the nervous system for optimal performance timing. This leads to better attentional focusing, physiological optimization (regulating arousal and muscle tension), and motor program activation. The timing consistency is crucial because motor programs are temporally organized; disrupting rhythm can disrupt the entire sequence.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Free-throw and penalty-kick routines follow consistent timing (breath, dribbles, set, shoot) to stabilize arousal and timing. Sprint starts use rhythm in the blocks (“set–hold–go”) to optimize RT and coordination. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Dance class combinations begin on counts with set preps (e.g., inhale on 7-8). PE teachers use rhythmic cues (metronome, claps) to help students coordinate complex patterns like jump-rope or ladders. - Physical Therapists: PTs incorporate rhythmic auditory stimulation (metronome, music) to entrain gait timing in Parkinson’s disease and post-stroke patients, improving step symmetry and sequence stability.

5. When you’re about to type a familiar word, do you feel like your fingers are already “programmed” to move in the right sequence before you start?

Concise Answer: Exactly! Your motor system programs the entire word sequence during preparation, creating coordinated finger movements that execute automatically once initiated.

Comprehensive Answer: This demonstrates motor sequence programming during action preparation. When you see a familiar word, your motor system pre-programs the entire keystroke sequence before your fingers move. Typing reaction time increases with word length, indicating that complete sequences are planned during preparation. This involves letter-to-finger mapping, temporal sequencing, and biomechanical optimization. The “programmed” feeling reflects well-learned motor programs that operate below conscious awareness.

Practical Examples: - Coaches: Play-call wristbands and rehearsed scripts in football help athletes pre-program multi-step plays. In baseball, signs allow batters/runners to pre-sequence actions (take, bunt, steal) before the pitch. - Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.): Keyboarding and choreography classes emphasize chunking (syllables/measures) so learners program sequences ahead of execution, improving fluency and reducing pauses. - Physical Therapists: PTs train ADL sequences (reach–grasp–pull–button) and use external cueing to help patients pre-program common routines, reducing cognitive load and improving speed/accuracy.

5.1 Objective 5: Motor Control Activities During Action Preparation

• Objective: Discuss the neural and muscular activities that occur during the preparation stage before movement begins.
• Focus:
  • What the brain and body do between intention and initiation.
  • Evidence from reaction-time studies and movement physiology.

By now, we know that reaction time (RT) measures the duration of movement preparation. But what exactly happens during that time?

This objective focuses on the internal activities that occur between deciding to move and actually moving — the unseen neural and muscular events that make up the preparation process.

Our textbook emphasizes that preparation involves perceptual, cognitive, and motor components. The brain identifies the signal, selects and programs the response, and begins activating the motor system even before we see movement.

We’ll examine several specific processes that occur during this phase — including evidence from fractionating RT, postural adjustments, limb and object control, sequencing, and rhythmic preparation. These show just how much “hidden work” the nervous system does to make smooth, coordinated movement possible.

5.2 Evidence from Fractionating Reaction Time (RT)

• RT can be divided into two measurable components using EMG recordings:
  • Premotor time — from stimulus onset to muscle activation (cognitive/perceptual processing).
  • Motor time — from first muscle activity to movement initiation (neuromuscular activation).
• Separating these components helps identify which preparation processes are affected by task demands.

To uncover what happens during the reaction time interval, researchers use electromyography (EMG) to record muscle activity.

This technique allows RT to be split into two parts. The premotor component is the time between the signal and the first sign of muscle activation — reflecting the brain’s perceptual and decision-making processes. The motor component covers the period from initial muscle activation to visible movement — reflecting the final stages of motor output.

Christina and Rose (1985) found that when movement complexity increased, almost all the added RT occurred in the premotor phase — meaning that the brain needed more time to plan, not the muscles to move. Similarly, Siegel (1986) showed that longer movement durations increased the premotor time linearly, again confirming that preparation time reflects cognitive rather than muscular factors.

In short, fractionating RT provides direct physiological evidence that action preparation involves both brain-based planning and early muscular activation before the movement we see.

5.3 Postural Preparation: Anticipatory Postural Adjustments

• Before a voluntary movement, the body automatically activates supporting muscles to stabilize posture.
• These anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) occur before the main movement begins.
• EMG studies show that trunk and leg muscles activate milliseconds prior to arm or hand motion.

Every time we move, our body quietly prepares the supporting muscles that keep us balanced — these are called anticipatory postural adjustments, or APAs.

Before you reach for a cup, your trunk muscles contract slightly to prevent you from losing balance. This happens automatically, usually 100–200 milliseconds before the arm muscles activate. EMG studies show these subtle activations even in simple tasks like finger tapping.

Weeks and Wallace (1992) found that as arm movement speed increased, the onset of leg muscle activity occurred earlier — showing that posture and action are tightly coordinated. Mercer and Sahrmann (1999) observed similar pre-activations in leg muscles during stepping, ensuring stability as weight shifts.

These findings tell us that the brain plans not just the movement itself but also the stability needed to support it. This coordination is vital for safety and efficiency. In rehabilitation, we often retrain these anticipatory adjustments in patients with balance or neurological issues, because without them, even simple movements can become unstable.

5.4 Preparation of Limb Movement Characteristics

• The brain prepares which limb, direction, and trajectory the movement will take.
• Movement characteristics are preprogrammed before execution begins.
• This ensures coordination and timing between limb segments.

Before movement begins, the motor system specifies several key features of limb motion — which limb will move, in what direction, how far, and along what path.

These movement characteristics are planned in advance to meet the task’s constraints. For example, reaching to a target involves preparing both direction and trajectory so the arm moves efficiently and accurately.

Neural activity recorded before movement initiation shows that the motor cortex encodes these variables even before the muscles contract. In ballistic or spatially constrained tasks, such as hitting a target or catching a ball, the system must prepare the trajectory and timing beforehand.

This preprogramming is what allows us to move fluidly and avoid hesitation once the signal is given. In sports or rehabilitation, improving the clarity of these limb plans — through visualization, cueing, or repetition — can enhance both speed and coordination.

5.5 Preparation of Movements for Object Control

• When manipulating objects, preparation includes specifying:
  • Force control — how much force to apply.
  • End-state comfort — grasping based on the final, comfortable position.
• These anticipatory adjustments optimize efficiency and precision.

When we interact with objects, preparation becomes more complex — the brain must plan both how and how much.

First, there’s force control. Before lifting a box or a pen, we anticipate its weight and prepare the appropriate grip and lifting force. If we expect an object to be heavy but it’s actually light, our movement looks jerky because the prepared force exceeds what’s needed. Butler and colleagues (1993) showed that people program lifting force before they feel the object — a clear sign that force control is part of preparation.

Second, there’s end-state comfort control — planning the movement so that the final position is comfortable and efficient for the intended action. For example, if you pick up an upside-down cup to turn it upright, you’ll start with an awkward grip that ends comfortably once the cup is rotated.

This shows that during preparation, the brain doesn’t just plan how to start — it plans where the movement will end, prioritizing efficiency and precision over initial comfort.

5.6 Preparation of Sequences of Movements

• Sequential actions (typing, playing piano, etc.) are partially preprogrammed before the first movement starts.
• Evidence: increased RT with longer or more complex sequences.
• Kinematic studies show consistency in finger positioning across repeated trials.

Many motor skills involve sequences of movements — such as playing a piano passage or typing a word. Research shows that these sequences are at least partly prepared in advance.

Evidence comes from two areas. First, reaction time increases as the number of movements in a sequence increases. That’s because the brain must organize more elements before the first one begins. Second, kinematic studies of pianists and typists show that their finger movements for upcoming notes are already positioned while the current movement is still occurring.

Engel and colleagues (1997) found that expert pianists adjusted their hand position before reaching certain notes, indicating that the brain had already planned the upcoming sequence.

This preparatory overlap explains why experienced performers can produce long sequences smoothly and without hesitation. In training or rehabilitation, breaking complex actions into smaller chunks helps learners gradually develop this anticipatory sequencing ability.

5.7 Rhythmicity Preparation and Preperformance Rituals

• Many performers use preperformance rituals to establish timing and rhythm before action.
• These routines create a consistent rhythmic preparation pattern that stabilizes performance.
• Research shows strong correlation between consistent rhythm and successful execution.

A fascinating aspect of action preparation involves rhythmicity — the timing patterns people establish before executing a skill.

Athletes, musicians, and dancers often perform preperformance rituals — small, repeated behaviors like dribbling the ball a certain number of times before shooting or taking a deep breath before serving in tennis. These rituals are not superstition; they help the performer synchronize their motor system’s rhythm with the upcoming task.

Southard and Amos (1996) analyzed these routines in golf, tennis, and basketball and found that consistent relative timing of pre-movement behaviors correlated strongly with successful performance. The rhythm of the routine helps “tune” the nervous system to the task’s temporal demands.

When the rhythm is disrupted — for example, by time pressure or distractions — performance often declines. Thus, rhythmicity preparation helps stabilize the motor system, promoting smooth initiation and timing accuracy.

This is why coaches and therapists encourage routines: they anchor attention, regulate arousal, and help the performer enter an optimal preparatory state.

5.8 Practical Application: Understanding and Training Preparation Activities

Coaches

• Incorporate drills that train anticipatory postural adjustments (balance before motion).
• Teach athletes to plan force and end-state comfort for efficient object handling.
• Reinforce consistent preperformance rituals to stabilize readiness.

Instructors (PE, Dance, etc.)

• Use rhythmic warm-ups and cue timing to develop awareness of pre-movement preparation.
• Help students focus on sequence planning (e.g., choreography, instrument fingering).
• Encourage body awareness of stability and posture before movement.

Physical Therapists

• Address anticipatory postural control in balance and gait training.
• Teach patients to estimate and prepare force before lifting or grasping.
• Use repetitive task sequences to rebuild motor planning and timing in neurological rehab.

Understanding what happens during preparation allows us to design better training and rehabilitation interventions.

For coaches, emphasizing balance and postural readiness before action improves stability and reaction speed. Teaching athletes to anticipate required force and to use consistent preperformance routines enhances both precision and confidence.

For instructors, awareness of movement sequencing and rhythm is key. Encouraging rhythmic preparation helps students coordinate timing, while explicit cueing develops their sense of how movement is prepared internally before execution.

For physical therapists, these findings directly inform rehabilitation. Training anticipatory postural adjustments is critical for fall prevention. Helping patients plan and modulate lifting or grasping forces restores independence in daily activities. Repeated sequence practice — such as step or reach sequences — rebuilds the neural patterns required for efficient action preparation.

Across all disciplines, focusing on the preparation phase bridges cognitive planning and physical execution — leading to faster, smoother, and safer movement.

5.9 Conclusion: The Invisible Work of Preparation

• Action preparation involves multiple coordinated processes:
  • Cognitive planning (premotor phase)
  • Neuromuscular activation (motor phase)
  • Postural and limb readiness
  • Force, sequence, and rhythmic organization
• These occur before movement starts and ensure stability, precision, and timing.

To conclude, movement preparation is far more complex than simply waiting for a “go” signal.

Within the reaction time interval, the nervous system performs an intricate series of motor control activities — identifying stimuli, selecting responses, organizing posture, programming limb trajectories, setting forces, and aligning rhythm.

This hidden preparation ensures that by the time movement begins, the system is already optimized for stability, accuracy, and coordination.

For practitioners, this means that improving performance isn’t just about the movement itself — it’s about improving what happens before movement starts. By training preparation — through cue recognition, balance work, mental rehearsal, and consistent pre-performance routines — we help performers and patients achieve smoother, faster, and more controlled actions.

6 Summary and Integration

6.1 Summary: Action Preparation in Motor Control

• Preparation = the time and activity between intention and movement initiation.
• Reaction Time (RT) measures how long preparation takes.
• Preparation involves perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes that ensure smooth, coordinated action.

Let’s bring everything together. Action preparation is the critical phase between the decision to move and the start of movement. During this period, the brain interprets signals, selects responses, organizes posture, and activates the motor system — all before any visible motion occurs.

We use reaction time (RT) as a tool to measure how long this preparation takes. But RT is more than a stopwatch number — it represents the mental and neural work that the body must perform before any action begins.

Whether in sports, daily life, or therapy, understanding preparation helps us explain why some movements feel fluid and others feel delayed or awkward. Preparation is the foundation of all voluntary movement.

6.2 Objective 1: RT as an Index of Preparation

• RT reveals how much preparation is required for an action.
• Actions vary in preparation time depending on complexity and context.
• Donders’ RT studies showed that each mental stage — identification, selection, programming — adds measurable time.

We began by exploring why RT can be used as an index of preparation. Donders’ experiments in the 1800s showed that as a task becomes more complex — for example, requiring stimulus discrimination or response selection — reaction time increases.

This simple but powerful idea established that RT reflects the internal processing between perceiving a cue and beginning to move. So, every delay we measure tells us something about what’s happening in the performer’s brain before action even starts.

6.3 Objective 2: Hick’s Law – Choices and RT

• Hick’s Law: RT increases logarithmically as the number of choices increases.
• RT = k [log₂ (N + 1)].
• Each additional choice adds a predictable amount of preparation time.
• Skilled performers reduce effective choices through anticipation and cue recognition.

Hick’s Law formalized the relationship between decision complexity and reaction time. Each extra choice adds cognitive load — more information to process, more time to prepare.

But the increase isn’t linear; it’s logarithmic. The first few options add substantial time, but beyond a certain point, additional choices add less delay.

In sports or fast decision environments, skilled performers counteract this by reducing the number of meaningful options — focusing only on key cues. That’s why experience shortens RT — it’s not about reflexes; it’s about information management.

6.4 Objective 3: Task and Situation Factors Influence RT

Factors that increase RT (and preparation time):

• More response alternatives
• Lower predictability
• Incompatible stimulus–response mappings
• Irregular foreperiods
• Higher movement complexity or accuracy demands

Factors that decrease RT:

• Predictable cues
• Compatible layouts
• Consistent timing
• Repetition and familiarity

Beyond the number of choices, task and situation characteristics also shape preparation time.

For example, RT increases when cues are unpredictable, movements are complex, or accuracy demands are high. It also lengthens when the stimulus and response are poorly matched — known as low stimulus–response compatibility.

In contrast, consistency, practice, and familiarity shorten RT. A predictable foreperiod or repeated movement allows the motor system to preload the response.

The key lesson is that designing the environment — whether in training, education, or therapy — directly influences how efficiently someone prepares to move.

6.5 Objective 4: Performer Characteristics Influence RT

• Alertness and vigilance determine readiness to detect signals.
• Attention focus (sensory set vs. motor set) affects RT — focusing on the signal leads to faster initiation.
• Performance expectancy and confidence influence preparation efficiency and energy use.

Preparation doesn’t depend only on external factors — it also depends on the performer’s internal state.

High alertness and focused attention shorten RT, but fatigue or distraction increase it. Long-term vigilance tasks — like driving or monitoring — degrade performance as attention fades.

Where attention is directed also matters: focusing on the signal rather than the movement yields faster responses. And finally, expectations — believing one will perform well — enhance efficiency. Positive feedback improves preparation by reducing unnecessary tension and optimizing motor coordination.

In sum, the mind and body must be ready together for fast, effective action.

6.6 Objective 5: What Happens During Preparation

Key motor control activities:

• Fractionated RT → premotor (planning) and motor (activation) components.
• Anticipatory postural adjustments stabilize the body before motion.
• Limb and object planning — direction, force, and end-state comfort.
• Sequence and rhythmicity preparation — organizing movement order and timing.

Finally, during the reaction time interval itself, the body and brain are far from idle.

EMG studies show a clear premotor phase, when the brain is selecting and programming the response, followed by a motor phase, when muscles begin firing before movement starts.

Before every action, the system also engages in postural preparation, setting the base of support. When manipulating objects, it pre-programs force and final hand position for efficiency. For sequences, it organizes the order of movements in advance; and for rhythmic actions, it establishes timing through preperformance routines.

These processes illustrate the extraordinary sophistication of the motor control system — orchestrating multiple components seamlessly before we even move.

6.7 Integrative Summary: The Dynamics of Action Preparation

• Preparation time (RT) reflects the complex interaction of:
• • Task and situation demands
  • Performer state and focus
  • Neural and muscular pre-activation
• Optimizing performance means training the preparation phase, not just the execution.

Across all five objectives, the message is clear: action preparation is an integrated process. Task conditions, performer readiness, and underlying neural mechanisms all combine to determine how effectively and how quickly movement begins.

By understanding these interactions, we can design practice, teaching, and therapy that go beyond surface movement — focusing instead on the moment before the movement.

That’s where precision, speed, and control are truly built. When we train preparation — attention, anticipation, posture, timing — we train the foundation of skilled performance itself.

6.8 Final Application: From Theory to Practice

Coaches

• Simulate real-time decision-making and timing variability.
• Reinforce alert, cue-focused, confident preparation.

Instructors

• Emphasize readiness routines and attentional focus in learners.
• Use rhythm and consistency to teach efficient preparation.

Physical Therapists

• Train anticipatory postural control and task sequencing.
• Use clear cues and patient-paced intervals to rebuild readiness.

In practical terms, everything we’ve discussed about reaction time and preparation connects back to performance.

Coaches can train athletes to read cues and anticipate rather than react, shortening preparation time under pressure. Instructors can design learning environments that develop attentional focus and rhythmic readiness. Therapists can rebuild motor preparation and confidence after injury or neurological damage.

The unifying theme is that what happens before movement determines the success of the movement itself. When preparation is optimized — cognitively, physically, and emotionally — movement becomes faster, smoother, and more effective.

References

Magill, R., & Anderson, D. I. (2017). Motor learning and control: concepts and applications (11th edition). McGraw-Hill Education.